Among the problems include:
ü Early matured girls are prone to
sexual behavior/intercourse and sexual abuse.
ü Early matured girls and boys are more
likely to engage in smoking, depression, alcoholism and drug abuse.
ü Late matured girls develop low self
esteem than early matured girls .This may impact their learning process.
ü Teachers, parents and the society
need to monitor adolescent behavior and help them adjust to their physical
changes that may influence a adolescents involvement in risk behavior.
HUMAN SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
ü Refers to social interaction
,relationship,value,and rulers, principles and norms within a society and how
individual acquire, develop and live
with material relationship attachment
between mother and a child.
THEORIES ON SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
ü Psychoanalytic theory Sigmund French
(1856-1939) developed the psychoanalytic based on the idea that behavior is
related to working of the mind. Human being behavior is guided by his/her consciousness.
Characteristics of this theory
Personality is divided into three structures
i. Id. This is the
unconsciousness structure with no contact to reality.
ii. Ego,
dominated by the reality and rules reasoning .In making decision it also
is also know the executive branch.
iii. Superego. The more
structure of personality. Dealing with what is right and what is wrong. Theory
put forward that in order to resolve the conflict between the demand of reality,
the wishes id and the constraints of superego human being develops anxiety that
needs egos response.
ü -The ego reaction to anxiety
conflicts is known’s defense mechanism.
THEORIES OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Psychoanalytic stages of Human
development
The theory consists the five stages
i. Oral stages (birth 0.5years).In
this stage infant’s pleasure centre’s on mouth.
ii. Anal stages (1yrs).The
child`s pleasure centre on the anus.
iii .Phallic stages (3-6yrs).In this stage child`s pleasure centre on the
genital.
The stage is dominated by sexual
desire to the opposite sex.These includes;-Oedipus
complex. Male child sexual desire to her mother
-Penis /Envy/Electrical complex female
sexual desire to her
father.
iv. Latency stage
(6yrs-puberty).This stage involves repression of sexual.
v. Genital
stage (puberty onwards).In this stage sexual desire awaken and the main source
of pleasure, is sex that obtained out of this
social theory (individual context)
THE PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY
ü This theory was advocated by Erick Erickson
(1902-1994) as an extension of the friends.
ü Erickson comes up with eight stages
of human social development characterized by success and crises.
ü From the early social development is the
life span process and involves………………………… ………………………
PSYSOCIAL OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
i.
Trust
versus mistrust infancy. one half years children at this stage eg need to
develop trust from mother
ii.
Autonomy
versus shame and doubt
iii.
Intuitive
versus quietly
iv.
Industry
versus inferiority. For skill development in different field. If children
failed or get constrains in their effort.
v.
Identity
versus identity confusing adolescence 10-20. The stage of social establishment
problem solving at this stage.
vi.
Intimacy
versus isolation. Early adult hood 20-30 yeas establishment of intimacy relationship.
vii.
Generatively versus stagnation
viii.
Integrity
versus despair (late adult hood and old age 60s –death evaluating success and failure.
IMPLICATION OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
THEORIES IN TEACHING AND LEANING.
a. Teachers should encourage, appreciate
and emphasize skill development when teaching.
b. Teachers, parents and students
themselves should trust to each other in their teaching and learning effort. It
is evidenced in research effective teaching and learning should take place their
existence of respect and trust.
c. Teachers and parents should value
their students or children`s effort and avoid discouraging or intimidating them
so as to make them independent.
d. Guidance is necessary to students at
their rapidly growth stag in order to avoid confusion
e. Teachers, parents should help
students or children develop or attain their identity and concentrate in their
area of interest.
f. Teachers or parents should guide
their students and children to develop positive relationship that are of
benefit in teaching and learning progress
HUMAN COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
ü Cognitive development. It entail to
the individuals actively, construct their thinking and how the thinking process
change from one stage to another.
ü Thus, cognitive development implies
to how individuals think and use their thought in responding to their
environment through their life.
ü Different cognitive development
psychologists have tried to explain the cognitive development of human beings;
ü Among the notable figures both in
education and psychology include Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner and Levivygotsky
Jean Piaget`s cognitive development
theory
ü The theory is based on individual
mental process and abilities to adapt to new situation or demands
The mental
process involves constructing different knowledge include;
a. Schemas
b. Assimilation
c. accommodation
d. organization
Schemas; these are mental frame work that
guides our behavior and organize our knowledge
Assimilation;
this is the process of welcoming or integrating new knowledge to existing one.
Accommodation; this is the process of using new
schemas in to the new environment or information and experiences. For example when the child learn that all
animals with four limbs are cow....
Organization; is a process of grouping new and
existing independent knowledge in to organized in to similar behavior
JEAN PIAGETS COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
STAGE;
Jean Piaget
characterized the process of human development as passing through stages from
simple to complex cognitive thinking process.
These are stages;
i.
sensory
motor stage (0-2years)
ii.
pre
operational stage (2-7years)
iii.
concrete
operational stage (7-11years)
iv.
formal
operational stage (11-15years)
Sensory motor stage (0-2years)
ü This is the first stage of cognitive
stage as advocated by Piaget.
ü It involves infant’s construction of
an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experience.
ü Piaget`s explain that infants
develops the so called object permanence
the concept that objects exists even if they have taken away.
Pre operational stage (2-7years)
In this stage
children starts to present the world with words, images and drawings.
ü Formation of stable mental concepts
stars as well as emerging mental reasoning.
ü No internalization of activities.
ü Interpretation of to world at this stage
is more symbolic than reality.
ü The main characteristics of this
stage are that children are dominated by a certain characteristics of an object
and excluding others.
For example
children may pay more attention with height and size of object and exclude its
different shape.
ü Piaget termed it as the lack of conservation the awareness that when
object are altered. They don’t change its basic characteristics.
ü If children at this stage are asked
to comment on which among from the above object arrangement, it is obviously
that infant at this stage will respond
that group B comprise of many objects than group A
ü The response implies that children at
this stage cannot perform operation
CONCREATE OPERATIONAL STAGE (7-11
YEARS)
ü At this stage children can perform
concrete operations (operations that involve concrete objectives) and logical
reasoning replaces intuitive reasoning.
ü Children can perform conservation
showing that they are capable of uncovering reversible actions.
ü For example, if you pour some liquid
into two containers of the same shape and change one of the containers of the
same size but different shape, pour the same amount of liquid and then ask a
child which one consist much liquid, a concrete operational child will be able
to give the correct answer.
FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE (11-15
YEARS)
ü At this stage, thinking becomes more
abstract and in logical ways. The ideal and possibilities thoughts characterize
the stage. Thoughts such as who i am and who I want to be dominate the stage.
ü The uses of hypothetical deductive
reasoning are evident.
ü Complete cognitive reasoning is
attained at this stage.
LEV VYGOTSKY’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
ü Lev vygotsky like Piaget focused on
child’s thinking development.
ü The theory explains the process of
human cognitive development as depending on societal tools (opportunity
provided by the society) that influences individuals mind which is shaped by
the cultural contexts in which an individual lives.
ü Social interaction influences
children thinking and understanding of their world.
IMPLICATIONS OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
THEORIES IN TEACHING AND LEARNING
(a)Educators/teachers
should let students’ explorer solutions to their own problems. Teaching and
learning should emphasize on students active role in classroom as well as
problems solving skills.
(b)Rote
learning should be discouraged.
(c) Learning
by actions should be encouraged as it promotes student thinking and discovery.
(d)
Teacher’s questions should be those that stimulate students thinking.
(e)Teaching
and learning should start from where student has reached and assist them to go
to the next stage (simple to complex).level of the learner is important in
learning and teaching.
(f)The use
of the skilled personnel should be highly encouraged in help student in
learning process.
(g)
Evaluation should be progressive rather than summative (process rather than
outcome based).
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Emotions
involve:
·
Feelings
·
Hormonal
change
·
Expressive
behaviors/actions.
Thus we can
define emotions as:
ü Feel that involves physiological
arousal such as body shaking, wrinkling faces and expressive behaviors such as
smile, grievance, and fear.etc.
ü Emotions are not actually universal.
ü Emotions such as sympathy, shame may
vary from one individual, culture to another.
ü Socialist societies are more
sympathetic than capitalist societies.
ü Emotional development then involves
one’s emotional competence (ability to respond t a certain feelings).
DEVELOPMENT OF EMOTIONS
Emotions
develop in the following ways:
Ø Precipitating events, thoughts from
the environment triggers our emotions e.g. when you see something interesting
you laugh.
Ø Physiological change takes place.
Ø Evaluation of precipitating event as
positive or negative.
Ø Change in feeling expressed both
overtly and covertly.
Physiologists
classify emotions in different ways.
ü Emotion can either be positive or
negative.
Positive emotion includes;
Ø Anxiety, hostility, fear, guilt,
distress, anger, disgust, shame.
Negative emotion includes:
Ø Interests, joy, happiness, love,
excitement, etc.
EMOTIOANAL DEVELOPMENTAT DIFFERENT
STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
At infinity
stage, infants are dominated much with:
·
Surprise,
anger, sadness, fear, disgust, shame, jealous, guilt.
·
The
above emotions help infants to communicate and interact with their parents,
siblings, and caregivers.
For example,
cry may signify anger or hunger.
ü During early child hood, children are
dominated by pride, shame, guilt.
ü By the time of middle and lat
childhood, children are aware of negative emotions.
ü They can cancel or suppress negative
emotional reactions.
ü During adolescence stage, adolescence
are more dominated by emotions.
ü This is the period of storm and
stress.
The most
dominated emotions at this stage include:
Ø Depression (especially to girls) and
Ø Anger (verbal and instrumental
aggression) especially to boys.
Why Should Teachers Study Human Emotions Development?
(i)
To
help students/children cope with distressful situation and adjust accordingly.
(ii)
To
understand different emotions and factor leading to it that can alter our
students/children’s emotions and know how to react accordingly.
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
What is it
when individuals say somebody has no morality?
In which
situation individuals acts with morality/immorality?
ü How do individuals feel and react
about moral issues?
ü How do we evaluate the moral
behaviors/actions?
ü Are moral behaviors universal?
Definition;
ü Moral development involves changes in
thoughts, feeling and behaviors regarding standards of rights or wrong (shamrock,
2005) .
ü Thus, the positive or negative
evaluation we make to our behaviors and actions whether acting personally are
what we regard as morality.
THEORIES OF MORAL
DEVELOPMENT
ü Psychologists Jean Piaget and
Kohlberg Lawrence are the two notable figures characterized human moral
development.
ü The two theorists are dominated by
moral thinking and moral reasoning processes.
ü Thus, each theorist comes up with
stages of moral development.
CONVENTIONAL MORAL REASONING LEVEL
ü In this level, children moral
reasoning and actions are limited by others characteristics and actions.
Te level
involves two stages:
iii. Mutual interpersonal
expectations relationship and interpersonal conformity stage.
ü Children at this stage take into
consideration others behavior, actions, trust and values as basis for judging
moral behaviors.
ü How others see and evaluate them
influences their moral behavior and actions.
iv.Social systems morality stage.
ü Children moral judgments and actions
at this stage are dominated by societal laws, order, rules, and duty.
POST CONVENTIONAL MORAL REASONING
LEVEL
ü Moral reasoning at this stage goes beyond
societal rules, laws to individual’s ability to reason an possible causes and
decide on personal moral code.
The level
consists of two stages:
V. social contract or utility and
individual rights stage.
ü At this stage, individuals’ moral
reasoning is dominated by values, principals and rights rather than laws.
ü Rights transcend laws and the laws
are evaluated on how they protect human rights and values.
Vi.Universal Ethical Principles Stage
ü At this stage, individual moral
reasoning and decision are guided by universal human rights.
ü Individual reason and act in relation
to their conscience even if the actions will involve risks.
ü All stages of moral development above
signify that individuals pass through lowest to highest moral reasoning
process.
ü Kohlberg termed the process of moral
reasoning as moral dilemma the idea that individuals’ moral reasoning of what
is right or wrong is not static.
JEAN PIAGET THEORY OF MORAL
DEVELOPMENT
ü The theory put forward that children
go through stages on how they think about morality.
ü Thinking development determines moral
behaviors and actions of our children.
The moral
development stage involves:
Ø Heteronymous Morality Stage, and
Ø Autonomous Morality Stage
HETERONOMOUS MORALITY STAGE (4-7
YEARS)
ü At this stage Piaget advocated that children’s
thinking is not much stable.
ü To children rules set in their
society are unchangeable and unchallengeable
ü Children thoughts are that no one can
control rules, principles, and laws set.
ü For example, to children if someone
has committed mistake, he/she deserve punishment.
AUTONOMOUS MORALITY STAGE (10+
YRS-OLD AGE)
ü At this stage, children become aware
that rules, principles and laws are created by people and can be changed.
ü When judging an individual, they
consider individual’s attention as well as consequences caused by his/her
actions.
LAWRENCE KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL
DEVELOPMENT
ü The theory stress on the role of
reasoning .According to the theory, individual pass through three levels of
moral reasoning characterized with two stages each.
The moral reasoning levels are advocated by Kohlberg
includes;
I . pre conventional level
II. Conventional level
III .post conventional level
PRE CONVENTIONAL MORAL REASONING
LEVEL
ü This is the first level of moral
reasoning
ü Children moral development is highly
dominated by punishment and reward.
ü For example whatever is good is
deserves to reward and bad things deserves punishment
The level
involves two stages;
i.
Heteronymous stage: Children at this stage think of
punishment more than anything stages.
ii.
Individualism Instrumental and
Exchange stage.
Children at
this stage perform good things so that in return also they will be offered the
same.
Exchange for
good things dominates their moral thinking.
Importance of studying human moral
development.
The study of
studying moral development enables teachers to:
i.
Understand
different stages of human moral development.
ii.
Evaluate
student moral behaviors and be in position to help them.
iii.
Guide
student on what right and what is wrong.
iv.
Reward
or punish student moral behaviors in relation to societal norms, principles and
laws.
v.
Develop
school regulations, principles, and laws that are suitable for children moral
development.
vi.
Asses’
factors that may influence student’s moral behavior.
vii.
Interact
with other educational stakeholders on how to develop moral society.
viii.
Design
and develop moral education curriculum in relation to levels of their learner.
ix.
Educate
students, parents on the rule of parenting styles on children’s moral
development and moral behavior.
